The realm also has the fourth-most populous country in the world, Indonesia. Armenia has a mile long land border that it shares with four countries; Iran, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The country is subject to a trade embargo by Turkey, making it impossible to use Turkish ports for sea trade. The islands and the mainland of Southeast Asia include a wide array of physical and cultural landscapes.
The entire realm is located in the tropics except the northernmost region of Burma Myanmar , which extends north of the Tropic of Cancer. The pension can also be delayed until age An old-age lump-sum benefit payment is made if the insured is already at the pensionable age but with less than 5 years of coverage.
The old-age pension is calculated by taking into account pension points, and average covered earnings during the 12 months prior to retirement. A beneficiary may earn, receive a credit and in some circumstances, buy pension points.
Pension benefits are adjusted at least once every year based on the changes in the average insured earnings of all the insured persons. Pension Plan Employees are eligible to receive the LAO pension plan benefits after being employed continuously for 12 months. LAO contributes 9. Employees are currently required to contribute 6. Retirement Insurance When employees who have not made contributions to the national social security fund or despite contributions are yet to qualify to receive benefits, employers are held responsible based on the relevant law and regulations.
Retirement age and qualification for retirement benefits of employees are based on the following:. After making social security contributions in full for a period of 15 years or more, if an employee misses 3 years to reach his or her retirement age, will be eligible for the old-age pension. Mihi enables clients to have easy access to employee data in real time.
It is designed specifically for companies with a global workforce, especially when working in multiple countries with low headcount. Learn more about our end-to-end international expansion services.
Previous Section. Table of Contents. Next Section. Burma was one of the most prosperous colonies of Britain until World War II, when the Japanese invaded and war devastated the region. Democratic rule existed from until , when an authoritarian military dictatorship took over the country. A revolutionary council ruled the country between and This government nationalized most of the businesses, factories, and media outlets.
The overall operating principle of the council was a concept called the Burmese Way of Socialism. This concept was based on central planning and Communist principles mixed with Buddhist beliefs.
Between and , the sole political party of the country was the Burma Socialist Program Party, which was controlled by the same military general and his comrades who had been in control for decades. During this time, the rest of the world was advancing in technology and economic development and moving forward with advancements in health care and education.
Burma remained an impoverished and isolated nation. A number of countries, including the United States, have trade restrictions with Burma. For decades, the authoritarian regime in Burma has been accused of serious human rights violations, which have largely been ignored by the outside world. Protests against the military rule have always existed in Burma but have been suppressed by the armed forces and the authoritarian government.
In , the government cracked down on demonstrations at Rangoon University, resulting in fifteen students being killed and many others in need of medical attention.
The military government has taken serious action against any antigovernment protest activities. By , the people of Burma were taking to the streets with widespread demonstrations and protests against the government over claims of oppression, mismanagement, and lack of democratic reforms. A total crackdown on the people was implemented, with thousands of protesters killed.
A new council led by a military general created the State Law and Order Restoration Council a year later. Martial law was imposed and even harsher policies were imposed on anyone opposing the government. This is when the name of Myanmar was first used for the country. The name change and the military rule have not been universally accepted. The United States still refers to the capital city as Rangoon , not as Yangon. In , military rulers moved the capital north to the city of Naypyidaw.
The purpose of the move was to establish a forward capital and shift development and political energy more toward the center of the country, rather than along the coast.
World nations are divided on the issues of how to deal with the changes and the military regime in Burma. The governments of some countries believe more sanctions should be implemented to force the leadership into compliance. Other countries believe sanctions are not effective against the government; that is, sanctions harm the people and do not affect the military leadership.
Countries on this side of the equation believe that open trade is the best policy. The banner, written in Burmese, refers to a national movement to promote nonviolence. A Buddhist monk is in the foreground, and the Shwedagon Pagoda is in the background. Antigovernment protests erupted in when the military-ruled government allowed prices on fuel and energy to double and triple in price.
Protesters were quickly and violently dealt with and many were arrested and jailed. The demonstration ended in a renewed government crackdown. Another voice in the antigovernment demonstrations has been that of opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi , a UN worker in the early s and a Nobel Peace Prize winner in Her opposition to the military rule has led to imprisonment and house arrest for decades.
She has been a symbol of the opposition and hope for democratic reforms. In , Aung San Suu Kyi was at long last released from house arrest and allowed more freedom of movement under government restrictions.
Burma has been placed in the same category as North Korea and Somalia in terms of authoritarian rule, lack of human rights, and stagnant economy. Economic conditions are poor. The military rulers have gained control of the main income-generating enterprises in the country, including the lucrative drug trade from the prime opium growing region of the northern Golden Triangle Border region between Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam that has traditionally been a major opium growing area for the world.
All factors seem to indicate an increase in opium production in recent years. Precious gemstones such as rubies, sapphires, and jade are abundant in Burma. Rubies bring the highest incomes. The Valley of Rubies in the north is noted for quality gem production of both rubies and sapphires. Most of the gems are sold to buyers in Thailand.
Burma has become one of the poorest countries in Southeast Asia. China has emerged as the main trading partner with Burma and has been propping up the dictatorial military regime. China supplies the regime with arms, constructs many of the infrastructure projects, and supplies natural gas to the country. Burma is ethnically diverse. Though it is difficult to verify, the government of Burma recognizes one hundred thirty-five distinct ethnic groups within its borders.
It is estimated that there are over a hundred different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma. About 90 percent of the population is Buddhist.
This high level of diversity can allow for strong centrifugal forces that are not generally conducive to unity and nationalism. The heavy emphasis on the national military is one of the only centripetal forces within the population, even though the military leadership is also looked at with distain by those desiring more openness and democratic conditions.
Of the Southeast Asian countries, East Timor most recently gained its independence, as was mentioned in the previous lesson. In comparing these island nations, extensive diversity in all aspects will be found.
There are major differences in cultural, economic, and political dynamics, and in the ethnic groups that make up the dominant majorities in each.
There is also a high level of linguistic and religious diversity. The physical geography varies from island to island; some have high mountain relief and others are low-lying and relatively flat. Active tectonic plate action in the region causes earthquakes and volcanic activity, resulting in destruction of infrastructure and loss of life; both acutely impact human activities.
Economic forces continue to prompt the countries of Southeast Asia to enter into trade relationships that integrate them with global networks based on dependency and reliance. The old colonial powers may no longer control them politically but may affect them economically.
The new dynamics of corporate colonialism, with their economic power located in the core economic regions, still seek to exploit the countries of Southeast Asia for their labor and resources. These Asian nations are working to develop their own economies and use their own labor and resources to gain national wealth and increase the standard of living for their people. Each country has to contend with globalization forces within the international network of economic relationships. Malaysia is a country made up of various British colonies that came together as a federation and then became an independent country.
Britain started establishing colonies in the region in the late s. The two main areas include the western colonies on the Malay Peninsula and the eastern colonies on the island of Borneo. The western settlements were part of the Malay Peninsula, which included the colonies of Pinang and Singapore. Eventually, the British took control of the eastern colonies of Brunei , Sarawak, and Sabah on the island of Borneo. In , the western colonies on the mainland peninsula broke from their British colonizers and became an independent country called the Federation of Malaya.
In , the British Borneo colonies of Sarawak and Sabah joined the Federation of Malaya to form the current country, which is called Malaysia. In , Singapore broke off from Malaysia and became an independent country. Brunei, which was still a British protectorate, became independent in Malaysia has two main land areas separated by the South China Sea. These regions have similar physical landscapes, which include coastal plains with nearby densely forested foothills and mountains.
The highest mountains, rising 13, feet, are in East Malaysia on the island of Borneo. Located near the equator, Malaysia has a tropical Type A climate with monsoons regularly occurring from October to February. Islam is considered the official religion and is supported by at least 60 percent of the population. About 20 percent of the people are Buddhists, 10 percent Christians, and 6 percent Hindu.
The remaining percentages of the population include traditional Chinese religions and local tribal beliefs. In this Islamic country, there are concerns that Muslims get preferential treatment by government programs and policies.
There are even special judicial legal courts for Muslims only to work out issues regarding marriage, custody, inheritance, or other conflicting Islamic issues regarding faith and obligation. This court only hears Islamic issues and no other legal matters. There have been movements by minority extremist groups that would like to see Malaysia shift toward a true Islamic state, complete with the Sharia Criminal Code as the law of the land.
The movement, however, has been cracked down on by the government. Since the incident in the United States, there has been more concern about extremist religious views. People of Malay ethnic background make up more than 50 percent of the population.
People of Chinese descent are the second-largest group at about 24 percent. An additional 11 percent of the population is made up of indigenous groups. During British colonialism, a number of people from South Asia were brought to Malaysia. For example, Tamils were brought from India to work the plantations. Their Hindu beliefs were infused into the culture and some Tamils also converted to Christianity. Sikhs were brought from South Asia to help Britain run the country as police, soldiers, or security officers.
The Sikhs who came brought their religion with them, which added to the multireligious dynamics of the country. China has been active in the business community and has established strong economic ties with regional countries that have Chinese populations. The single largest minority group in the province of Sarawak on Borneo is Chinese. As a minority group, Chinese citizens of Malaysia have felt discrimination.
Since the official language is Malay and the official religion is Islam, there have been concerns about discrimination against all minority groups. Working through the cultural and ethnic diversity has been a major challenge for the country.
Each minority religious or ethnic group desires to celebrate its own special holidays. Sikhs celebrate the Sikh New Year. Buddhists celebrate a holiday in honor of the life and enlightenment of Buddha. Christians celebrate Christmas and Easter. Many other holidays of significance are respected or honored by various minority groups. Malaysia has rapidly advanced its economy in recent decades and is modernizing its infrastructure—roads, bridges, highways, and urban facilities.
Before the global economic downturn that started in , Malaysia had developed a fast-growing economy and was industrializing at a rapid rate.
Malaysia has taken advantage of its location on a major shipping lane and has shifted to manufacturing as an important sector of its economy. The country has been a leader in the export of natural resources such as tin, rubber, and palm oil and has developed its agricultural and extractive sectors to gain income.
The s and s were prosperous times for the country and it matured its manufacturing base from light textiles into electronics and heavy industries. One aspect of the country that is looming on the horizon and may cause problems is the high population growth rate. Though the country is 70 percent urban, family size fertility rate is still at about 3. One-third of the population is under the age of fifteen. Malaysia is one case where the general principle that if a country urbanizes and industrializes the family size will go down has not taken place fast enough.
The fertility rate has dropped from 5. Unless the country addresses this population growth, the demand for resources might outstrip economic progress in the future.
Under British colonial rule, the island of Singapore was included in the Malaysian federation. It broke away and became independent in It is a small island measuring about thirty miles long at its widest point. Singapore is about two hundred forty square miles in area. Singapore is similar to Hong Kong in its development. With a good port, Singapore is a hub for ships sailing between Europe and China. Singapore has made good strategic utilization of its geographic location by serving as a distribution center for goods and materials processed in the region.
Crude oil from Indonesia is unloaded and refined here. Raw materials are shipped in, manufactured into finished products, and then shipped out to global markets. Since Singapore is small, it has had to concentrate on manufacturing goods that provide for optimal profits.
As an economic tiger, Singapore has transitioned through the same stages as Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong to become an economic power in Southeast Asia. To keep labor costs low, initial manufactured products were textiles, clothing, and cheap goods. As incomes and labor skills rose, so did the complexity of the manufactured goods.
The government of Singapore has targeted certain types of products to ensure a high profit margin and a global market need. This has included automation equipment, biotechnology, and high-end information technologies. Medical technology is expensive and is in high demand the world over.
Singapore is targeting this market. The information age has spawned new technologies that are evolving rapidly and, once again, Singapore has been at the center of this industry. Singapore has been a center for the production of computer disc drives for a multitude of global corporations.
Singapore Island is a swampy place with no natural resources. All production components, food goods, construction materials, and energy must be imported. Importing everything has raised the cost of living. To compete with the other Asian economic tigers in the global marketplace, Singapore has implemented severe control measures on its operations.
There are harsh penalties for criminal activities and for even misdemeanor offenses. Singapore is a safe place to live because of its strict state rules. It has an authoritarian government, which strives to create an attractive place for international corporations to operate. One of the objectives is to eliminate corruption and establish a business-friendly environment. The government of Singapore has entered into trade agreements with two of its neighbors to provide raw materials and cheap labor.
A trade triangle Three-way trade agreement between Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia where each country contributes what it can provide and receives what the other countries have to offer. Malaysia and Indonesia provide Singapore with raw materials and cheap labor; Singapore provides its neighbors with technical know-how and financial support.
Everyone benefits. Singapore is an excellent example of the upper end of the economic spectrum in Southeast Asia. Countries like Laos or Vietnam would be at the opposite end, since they have a largely rural population based on agriculture that is just beginning to shift to the cities with industrialization. Singapore is already percent urban with high incomes based on high-tech manufacturing and processing of raw materials. Singapore is an economic hub for Southeast Asia, complete with global airline connections and is located on a major shipping lane.
The rest of Southeast Asia is somewhere in between these two ends of the spectrum as far as economic development is concerned. Indonesia is the sixteenth-largest country in the world by area. The combined area of all the islands and regions of Indonesia would equal about the size of the country of Mexico. The country shares land borders with the Borneo side of Malaysia, the western half of the island of Timor, and the western portion of the island of New Guinea, which is shared with the country of Papua New Guinea.
Average rainfall can vary from seventy to two hundred forty inches per year. The highest mountain is in West Papua and rises to about 16, feet. Indonesia is located on the Pacific Rim, where tectonic plate activity produces earthquakes and volcanic activity.
The country is home to over one hundred fifty active volcanoes, including two of the most famous ones, Krakatoa and Tambora. Both had devastating eruptions in the past two centuries. One of the most violent volcanic explosions ever recorded in human history came from Krakatoa, which is located between the islands of Java and Sumatra. A series of eruptions in were heard as far away as the coast of Africa.
Shockwaves reverberated around the globe seven times. Ash erupted into the atmosphere to a height of about fifty miles. The official death toll was 36,, but estimates from local sources place it as high as , Krakatoa remains active. Over the past few decades, the volcanic peak has been growing at the average rate of about five inches per week. The tropical climate and the archipelago nature of the country provide for enormous biodiversity within the environment.
Second only to Brazil in its biodiversity, Indonesia is host to an enormous number of unique plants and animals. The habitats of many of these creatures are being encroached upon by human activity. The remote islands have more of a chance of escaping habitat devastation and remaining intact, but agricultural and extractive economic activities have converted much of the natural environment into a cultural landscape that is not conducive to environmental sustainability.
Animals such as orangutans are losing their natural forests and may become extinct if current trends continue. The timber industry has brought about deforestation.
Slash and burn agriculture has destroyed forest habitat, and human development patterns such as roads and urbanization have altered the ecosystems of the region.
According to recent reports, Indonesia is one of the largest emitters of carbon dioxide in the world because of the high number of forest fires set each year. In , the United States brokered a deal with Indonesia to forgive thirty million dollars of its debt if the country would work to protect forests on the island of Sumatra, which is home to endangered indigenous animals such as tigers, elephants, rhinos, and orangutans.
In , the estimated population of Indonesia was about million. Indonesia has the fourth-largest population of any country in the world, after the United States, India, and China.
Indonesia also has more Muslims than any other country in the world. More than half the population of Indonesia lives on Java, the island where Jakarta, the capital city, is located. Java is the most populous island in the world, and has a population density of more than 2, people per square mile. Java is the size in area of the US state of Louisiana. Java has million people, whereas Louisiana has 4. Jakarta is a world-class city that is larger than New York City and encompasses a large metropolitan area, complete with many manufacturing centers, business complexes, and housing districts.
The many islands of Indonesia are home to a large number of diverse ethnic and religious groups that vary as widely as any Southeast Asian nation. There may be as many as three hundred different and distinct ethnic groups in Indonesia. Many of the ethnic groups are further divided by islands or distance. More than two hundred fifty separate languages and hundreds of additional dialects are spoken.
There are an estimated seven hundred fifty languages spoken on the island of New Guinea itself, with hundreds of them spoken on the Indonesian side of the island, in a population of less than three million. The most prevalent language group in the country as a whole is Javanese, which is spoken by about 42 percent of the population.
Javanese includes the official language of Indonesian, which is taught in schools and used in business and politics as the lingua franca of the country. Many people speak more than one language or even a number of languages to communicate throughout the country. Islam was diffused to Indonesia in the thirteenth century and by the sixteenth century had become the dominant religion.
The Indonesian constitution allows for religious freedom, although more than 85 percent of the population follows Islam. There are at least four other religions that are officially recognized: Christianity both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism , Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Since Islam is followed by such a large percentage of the population, the other religions do not carry the same influence. Regional and ethnic differences play a role in the varied religious dynamics. The island of Bali , for example, is home to a majority Hindu population.
Most of the Buddhists are ethnically Chinese, and they only make up a small percentage of the population. Christians and Muslims have had conflicts on the island of Sulawesi. It is common to find the practice of these religions less than orthodox in the more rural communities of the country. In spite of the diversity within the population, the country of Indonesia has established a substantial degree of nationalism as a centripetal force that holds the country together. There is a relatively high degree of stability in spite of the surface tensions or ethnic and religious conflicts that may erupt.
An example of the social tensions is demonstrated in the case of Chinese citizens of Indonesia, who only make up about 1 percent of the population but impart a substantial influence over the privately owned business sector of the economy.
This seemingly inequitable relationship has resulted in considerable resentment by other portions of the population, often with violent results. The many islands have become natural divisions between cultural groups. Some of the islands—or portions of them—have attempted to break away in a devolutionary manner and become independent countries.
Just as East Timor became independent, the most western province of Aceh on the island of Sumatra had a similar movement toward independence. West Papua on the island of New Guinea has also had an independence movement.
The Aceh situation was negotiated out while the West Papua movement has been suppressed by military and political force. Many of the islands possess large amounts of natural resources, so the country of Indonesia does not want to lose these national assets that could prove valuable in gaining wealth for the future. It is not easy to create national unity with such a diverse population scattered throughout such a large archipelago. Agriculture has been the historic base of the Indonesian economy.
Agriculture is the largest employment sector—approximately 42 percent of the workforce. This equates to more than half of the population being rural.
Many of the agricultural methods in rural areas are traditional; for example, farmers use water buffalo or oxen for tilling the land. The tropical climate and adequate rainfall provide for multiple crops of rice per year in many areas. Spices, coffee, tea, palm oil, and rubber are also produced in substantial quantities.
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